Mamelukes

Mamluks (or Mameluks) (the Arabic word usually translates as "owned") comprised slave soldiers used by the Muslim Caliphs and the Ottoman Empire, and who on more than one occasion seized power for themselves.

The first Mamluks worked for Abbasid caliphs in 9th-century Baghdad. The Abbasids recruited them from enslaved non-Muslim families captured in areas including modern Turkey, Eastern Europe, and the Caucasus. Although Islamic teachings called for equality, brotherhood and abolishing of slavery, the practice of recruitng slave soldiers began as an extension of the significant role of slavery in the Middle East dating from pre-Muslim days. Recruiting non-Muslims helped partially overcome Islamic prohibitions on Muslims fighting each other. After conversion to Islam they trained as cavalry soldiers, while technically after training they were no longer slaves they were still obliged to serve the Sultan. They were kept by the Sultan as an outsider force, under their direct command, to use in the event of local tribal frictions. Many Mamluks rose to high positions throughout the empire, including commanderships. Status remained non-hereditary at first and children were strictly prevented from following their fathers. The intensive and rigourous training given to each new recruit helped ensure a great deal of continuity in Mameluke practices.

Mamluks in Egypt

Two Mamluk dynasties ruled Egypt: the Bahri (consisting of Turks and Mongols) and Burji (Circassians and Georgians). The Bahri led the way in breaking the rule of non-hereditary positions: they established rule by a few families. Through all of this period until the 19th century they continued to increase their numbers by purchasing more slave soldiers.

In 1517 Egypt was taken over by the Ottoman Empire. The Mameluke remained in charge of the state, which retained much autonomy from Constatinople.

In 1768 Sultan Ali Bey Al-Kabir proclaimed a short-lived independence from the Ottomans, but this was gain crushed. The Mamluks retained their position after his defeat. By this time new slave recruits came from Georgia, in the Caucasus. Napoleon defeated Mamluk troops when he attacked Egypt in 1798 and chased them to Upper Egypt. By this time Mamluks had added only muskets to their typical cavalry charge tactics. When Napoleon had to leave Egypt, his officers failed to contain the rebellion. When French troops departed 1801, the Mamluks had to fight both the Ottoman Empire and the British.

In 1806 Mohammad Ali Pasha became the governor of Egypt. In 1811 he invited a number of Mamluk leaders (accounts differ from 64 to 700) to his palace in Cairo and ambushed them in the street after the reception. Reputedly only one survived the Citadel Massacre. During the following weeks his troops killed thousands of Mamluks all over the country. Only a small group managed to flee to Sudan. The era of Egyptian Mamluk rulers had come to an end.

Mamluks in France

Napoleon formed his own Mamluk corps in the early years of the 19th century, the last known Mamluk force. Even his Imperial Guard had Mamluk soldiers during the Belgian campaign, including one of his personal servants. After the Battle of Austerlitz (2 December 1805) they gained their own regimental standard. Napoleon's famous bodyguard Roustan was also mameluk from Egypt. One of the pictures by Francisco de Goya shows a charge of mameluks against the Madrilene in May 2, 1808.

Mamluks in Baghdad

In the Ottoman Empire, Mamluks of Baghdad proclaimed their independence in the 18th century and remained autonomous until the Ottoman reconquest in 1832.

Mamluks in India

In 1211, the Mamluk commander of the Muslim forces in India proclaimed himself as Sultan. This Mamluk dynasty lasted until 1290. See Delhi Sultanate for more information.

Other slave soldiers

Other Islamic states used janissaries of the Ottoman Empire and the saqaliba of Andalusi taifas, especially in Denia.

Related terms

In colonial Brazil, a mameluco was the descent of a Portuguese and a Black African. Mamelucos raided the Guarani areas for slaves.