Flash RAM
Flash memory is a form of EEPROM that allows multiple memory locations to be erased or written in one programming operation. Normal EEPROM only allows one location at a time to be erased or written, meaning that flash can operate at higher effective speeds when the systems using it read and write to different locations at the same time. All types of flash memory and EEPROM wear out after a certain number of erase operations, due to wear on the insulating oxide layer around the charge storage mechanism used to store data.
Flash memory stores information on a silicon chip in a way that does not need power to maintain the information in the chip. This means that if you turn off the power to the chip, the informaton is retained without consuming any power. In addition, flash offers fast read access times and solid-state shock resistance. These characteristics are why flash is popular for applications such as storage on battery-powered devices like cellular phones and PDAs.
Flash memory is made in two forms: NOR flash and NAND flash. The names refer to the type of logic gate used in each storage cell.
Principles of Operation
Flash memory stores information in an array of transistors, called "cells," each of which traditionally stores one bit of information. Newer flash memory devices, sometimes referred to as multi-level cell devices, can store more than 1 bit per cell, by varying the amount of electrons placed on the FG of a cell.
In NOR flash, each cell looks similar to a standard MOSFET transistor, except that it has two gates instead of just one. One gate is the control gate (CG) like in other MOS transistors, but the second is a floating gate (FG) that is insulated all around by an oxide layer. The FG is between the CG and the substrate. Because the FG is isolated by its insulating oxide layer, any electrons placed on it get trapped there and thus store the information. When electrons are on the FG, they modify (partially cancel out) the electric field coming from the CG, which modifies the transition voltage (Vt) of the cell. Thus, when the cell is "read" by placing a specific voltage on the CG, electrical current will either flow or not flow, depending on the Vt of the cell, which is controlled by the amount of electrons on the FG. This presence or absence of current is sensed and translated into 1's and 0's, reproducing the stored data. In a multi-level cell device, which stores more than 1 bit of information per cell, the amount of current flow will be sensed, rather than simply the presence or absence of current, in order to determine the amount of electrons stored on the FG.
A NOR flash cell is programmed (set to a specified data value) by starting up electrons flowing from the source to the drain, then a large voltage placed on the CG provides a strong enough electric field to suck them up onto the FG, a process called hot-electron injection. To erase (reset to all 1's, in preparation for reprogramming) a NOR flash cell, a large voltage differential is placed between the CG and source, which pulls the electrons off through Fowler-Nordheim tunnelling, a quantum mechanical tunneling process. Most modern NOR flash memory components are divided into erase segments, usually called either blocks or sectors. All of the memory cells in a block must be erased at the same time. NOR programming, however, can generally be performed one byte or word at a time.
NAND Flash uses tunnel injection for writing and tunnel release for erasing.
History
NOR flash was the first type to be developed, invented by Intel in 1988. It has long erase and write times, but has a full address/data (memory) interface that allows random access to any location. This makes it suitable for storage of program code that needs to be infrequently updated, as in digital cameras and PDAs. Its endurance is 10,000 to 100,000 erase cycles. NOR-based flash is the basis of early flash-based removable media; Compact Flash was originally based on it, though later cards moved to the cheaper NAND flash.
NAND flash from Samsung and Toshiba followed in 1989. It has faster erase and write times, higher density, and lower cost per bit than NOR flash, and ten times the endurance. However its I/O interface allows only sequential access to data. This makes it suitable for mass-storage devices such as PC cards and various memory cards, and somewhat less useful for computer memory. The first NAND-based removable media format was SmartMedia, and numerous others have followed: MMC, Secure Digital, Memory Stick and xD-Picture Cards.
Flash memory forms the core of the removable USB interface storage devices known as keydrives.
Limitations
A frequently asked question is why flash memory isn't used to replace DRAM in computers so that memory contents would not be lost when they are turned off or power is lost. The limitation of flash is that while it can be read or programmed a byte or a word at a time in a random access fashion, blocks of memory must be erased all at the same time. To explain further, flash components are generally subdivided into a number of segments called blocks.
Starting with a freshly erased block, you can program any bytes within that block. However, once a byte has been programmed, it can't be changed again until it is erased, which has to be done a block at a time. In other words, flash (specifically NOR flash) offers random-access read and programming operations, but cannot offer random-access rewrite or erase operations. Thus, many applications of DRAM that involve overwriting a specific address location quickly cannot be easily implemented on flash memory. In addition, DRAM is generally cheaper than flash memory on a cost per bit basis.
Flash filesystems
Because of the particular characteristics of flash memory, it is best utilised with specifically-designed filesystems which spread writes over the media and deal with the long erase times of NOR flash blocks. The basic concept behind flash file systems is: When data on the flash store is to be updated, the file system will write a new copy of the changed data over to a fresh block, remap the file pointers, then erase the old block later when it has
time.
JFFS was the first of these filesystems, quickly superseded by JFFS2, originally developed for NOR flash. Then YAFFS was released in 2003, dealing specifically with NAND flash, and JFFS2 was updated to support NAND flash too. However, in practice most flash media is used with the old FAT filesystem for compatibility purposes.
